① Psychologists have long been in disagreement as to whether competition is a learned or a genetic component of human behavior. Whatever it is, you cannot but recognize the effect competition is exerting in academics and many other areas of contemporary life.

② Psychologically speaking, competition has been seen as an inevitable consequence of human drives. According to Sigmund Freud, humans are born screaming for attention and full of organic drives for fulfillment in various areas. Initially, we compete for the attention of our parents.  Thereafter, we are at the mercy of a battle between our base impulses for self-fulfillment and social and cultural norms which prohibit pure indulgence.

③ Current work in anthropology (人类学) has suggested, however, that this view of the role of competition in human behavior may be incorrect. Thomas Hobbes, one of the great philosophers of the seventeenth century, is perhaps best remembered for his characterization of the “natural world”, that is, the world before the imposition of the will of humanity, as being “nasty, brutish, and short.” This image of the pre-rational world is still widely held, reinforced by Charles Darwin’s highly influential work, The Origin of Species, which established the doctrine of natural selection. This doctrine, which takes for granted that those species best able to adapt to and master the natural environment in which they live will survive, has suggested that the struggle for survival is an inherent human trait which determines a person’s success. Darwin’s theory has even been summarized as“survival of the fittest” — a phrase Darwin himself never used — further highlighting competition’s role in success. As it has often been pointed out, however, there is nothing in the concept of natural selection that suggests that competition is the most successful strategy for “survival of the fittest.” Darwin asserted in The Origin of Species that the struggles he was describing should be viewed as metaphors and could easily include dependence and cooperation.

1.1. What does the author think is easy to see in many areas of contemporary life?

A The disagreement on the inevitability of competition.

B The consequence of psychological investigation.

C The effect of human drives.

D The impact of competition.

解析：选D。D 细节理解题。文章第①段明确提到：“Whatever it is, you cannot but recognize the effect competition is exerting in academics and many other areas of contemporary life.” 这句话直接指出，竞争在学术和当代生活的许多领域中都产生着影响。选项D中的“impact”与原文中的“effect”同义，因此正确答案是D。

2.2. According to psychology, what do people strive to do following the initial stage of their life?

A Fulfill individual needs without incurring adverse effects of human drives.

B Indulge in cultural pursuits while keeping their base impulses at bay.

C Gain extensive recognition without exposing pure indulgence.

D Satisfy their own desires while observing social conventions.

解析：选D。D 推理判断题。文章第②段提到：“we are at the mercy of a battle between our base impulses for self-fulfillment and social and cultural norms which prohibit pure indulgence.” 这句话表明，人们在满足自身欲望的同时，也要遵守社会和文化规范，避免纯粹的放纵。选项D准确地概括了这种平衡关系，因此正确答案是D。

3.3. What do we learn about the “natural world” characterized by Thomas Hobbes?

A It gets misrepresented by philosophers and anthropologists.

B It gets distorted in Darwin’s The Origin of Species.

C It is free from the rational intervention of humans.

D It is the pre-rational world rarely appreciated nowadays.

解析：选C。C 推理判断题。文章第③段提到，Thomas Hobbes将“自然世界”描述为“nasty, brutish, and short”，并指出这是“the world before the imposition of the will of humanity”。这句话暗示自然世界在人类理性干预之前是野蛮、残酷的，因此选项C“It is free from the rational intervention of humans”符合原文意思，是正确答案。故选C。

4.4. What can we conclude from Darwin’s assertion in The Origin of Species?

A All species inherently depend on others for survival.

B Struggles for survival do not exclude mutual support.

C Competition weighs as much as cooperation as a survival strategy.

D The strongest species proves to be the fittest in natural selection.

解析：选B。B 推理判断题。文章第③段提到：“Darwin asserted in The Origin of Species that the struggles he was describing should be viewed as metaphors and could easily include dependence and cooperation.” 这句话表明，达尔文认为生存斗争不仅包括竞争，还包括依赖和合作。选项B准确地表达了这一观点，因此正确答案是B。

5.5. What conclusion did Margaret Mead reach after studying dozens of different cultures?

A It is characteristic of humans to be competitive.

B Americans are uniquely opposed to cooperation.

C Competition is relatively more prevalent in Western societies.

D People’s attitude towards competition is actually culture-bound.

解析：选D。D 细节理解题。文章第④段提到：“Mead’s final conclusion was that competitiveness is a culturally created aspect of human behavior, and that its prevalence in a particular society is relative to how that society values it.” 这句话直接表明，竞争是一种文化创造的行为，其在一个社会中的普遍程度取决于该社会对竞争的重视程度。选项D准确地概括了这一结论，因此正确答案是D。